Human development Essay Example for Free

Human development Essay Life starts at conception. Immediately fertilization takes place changes and events occur that will determine the kind of person to be born. This research tries to find out the effect of early life on the later life of an individual. And if early life affects the later life of the individual, then do children who grow up in violent communities have a tendency to exhibit violent behaviors as adults? The research will apply the cross-sectional design. People who differ in age are studied at the same time. A comparison of age related changes and the social behavior is done. A hypothesis is put forward and a cross-sectional experiment is done to test it. One advantage of this design is that one can collect data from different ages of children over a short period of time. Stages of human development After fertilization takes place, the zygote is formed. The zygote undergoes cell division some hours after it is formed. It takes one week to reach the uterus. In the uterus there occurs implantation. The zygote makes connection to the blood vessels. This process takes about one week(Brian Scott, 2005). After the zygote completely implant into the uterus, it becomes the embryo. This stage occurs between the 3rd week and the 9th week. During this stage the human body structure start to develop. The internal organs also start developing. The embryo consist of three layers: the ectoderm, the outer layer; the endoderm, the middle layer and the endoderm, inner layer. The ectoderm develops into the skin and hair; the mesoderm develops into bones , cartilages and the cardiovascular system ; the third layer develops into the internal organs . The heart start beating after four weeks. By 8 most body organs can be seen in although not well developed. Brian and Scott, 2005 ). The embryo rest in the amniotic sac which contains amniotic fluid. This fluid protects it. The embryo is connected to the mother via the placenta and the umbilical cord. The development of the embryo follows two principles: the cephalocaudal i. e it develops from head towards the legs and the proximodistal – the parts near the centre of the body develops first e. g the arm develops before the hands (Lichtenberg Norton,1970). The third stage is the Fetus stage. This stars from the ninth week. At this stage, most body organs start to work. There is remarkable increase weight. During this period, the body systems like the respiratory system develop. The fetus can move and play in the uterus. It can hear the heart mother’s hear beat and the mother speak. It can detect flavor. The fetus’s senses are developed. The sensory influence can have a lifetime effect on the fetus. A research done by deCasper and Spence( cited in Lorraine ) shows that the last few months of prenatal developments can shape the life of the newborn infant. It can have either positive or negative effect on the infant. For instance extreme stress in the mother can have several effects: First, the stress tigress the production of hormones which reduces the level of oxygen consumption of the fetus. Second, stress may affect eating habits of the mother thus affecting the fetus in turn. Third, it may cause the mother not to take onto account resting, exercising and may influence her to drink. All these have negative effect on the fetus (Joseph , Sandraw,1994). The mother’s age. The mother’s age seems to have an effect on the newborn baby. For instance teenage mothers mothers are likely to have problems during pregnancy and during birth. This is because they may not have the resources and skills to give them a good prenatal care. Again children born by teenage mothers may have problems. However a study ( Leavitt, 1993) revealed that it is the environmental and economic background that affect the child and not necessarily the age of the mother. Also the prenatal care given to the mother determines the behavior of the child. Nevertheless, older women, over 35 years experience more problems during pregnancy than younger women. They also record higher rates of miscarriage and Down ’s syndrome (Cited in Nelson). In general, for a healthy pregnancy and healthy baby, the age of the mother should be between 20 to 35 years. Teratogens. : Drugs, deseases and environmental harzards. Teratotegen is anything that affect a pregnancy. Some teratogens are: Drugs: Many drugs consumed by pregnant women pose great danger to the fetus and the mother. This was discovered after a drug called thalidomide caused women to bear children with malformed body organs. Thalidomide was being used by pregnant women to assist them sleep Other examples of teratogens are alcohol, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine and cigarettes. Joseph Sandraw, 1994). Diseases: Some diseases do not have any serious effect on the pregnant women. However most viral and bacterial diseases have effect on the pregnancy. The most serious ones are AIDS, gonorrhea, syphilis and genital herpes. These may cause low immune system and various disorders in the unborn (Lichtenberg Norton, 1970). Environmental hazards: The wastes from the industries contain chemicals. These chemicals may be absorbed into the mother’s body in small quantities through breathing and drinks. These cause great damage to the fetus since they are teratogens. Environmental teratogens are more serious because the mother may not be aware that she is taking it. Thus she may not have control over it. (Joseph Sandraw, 1994). However some teratogens may be avoided especially those found in food as food additives. Freud(1954) suggested that life starts at birth. Most psychoanalysts of his time believed so. They believed that the brain developed at infancy. Winnicot(cited in Freud) did a research which found that the experience of the unborn is very important the infant. It could have emotional implications that could affect the person even as an adult. Winnicott observed children and saw that there very many differences. He noted that problems caused during labor could traumatize the baby who develops a lot of distress. He conclusively said that the experience gained in the womb remain in memory for a lifetime. In the womb, traumatized fetus even develops defensive mechanisms to face the expected trouble. Later research therapists conducted research and were able to conclude that early trauma created a lot of fear for the rest of the life of the infant. The feelings of anxiety, seeing being devoured by ogres, falling into a bottomless bit are as a result of early trauma. An example is given of an infant who was mistakenly exposed to cold in a very cold night (Lorraine). This child always dreamt lying in the refrigerator and this continued even after 30 years. This shows that early trauma caused the infant to expect disaster at any time. However the discovery of the effect of perinatal trauma on the life of an individual helped therapists to treat patients with problems related to early trauma (Freud, 1954). Recent research by perinatal psychologists, neurobiologists, experimental psychologists has shown great connection of fetal trauma to problems experienced later in life. Initially biologists used to think that the fetus had incomplete myelination of neurons and therefore it could not have memories. Research shows that the thinly myelinated nerves of fetus can transmit waves but at a lower rate. Joseph et al.. Thus the experience gained in the womb may make one to be aware of violence, disaster lack faith. With this in mind, parents have started to consider the unborn as part of the member of the family. A father who played a game with a baby and the mother found that the next baby easily learnt the game. These parents tried to avid any experiences that may cause fetal distress (Lichtenberg Norton,1970). Fourteen independent studies have shown the relationship between antenatal maternal anxiety and emotional distress in the child. Prenatal stages are likely to be affected by antenatal stress. These reports have suggested that maternal distress affect the fetus as evidenced by increased fetal heart rate (FHR). This is done by use of ultrasound and monitoring FHR over long periods of time. Both the experimental and distress –induced study design have been employed to achieve this. For a normal case, at about the 15th week of the pregnancy fetal movements exhibit a certain pattern. As developments progress the fetal movements become dependent on specific heart rate pattern. These patterns finally develop into sleep-wake patterns which characterize stable temporal origination near term. There is a relationship between body movements and FHR accelerations. Fetal behavior is organized in rest activity or sleep- wake cycle (Lichtenberg Norton, 970). Effect war and social violence Family violence and trauma caused by war are passed through generations. Adults who were exposed to abuse and violence are more likely to show violence to their own offspring. They have difficulty forgetting their past and live normally. War and violence are everywhere in our societies. Many ethnic clashes continue for years and our children are being exposed to their effects. The children are being thought that disputes are being solved by use of violence. This violence is passed from generation to generation. Research and behavioral science has began to confront the problems of children exposed to violence. (Heidi, 2002). Over the last few decades, there has been an increase in the prevalence of domestic violence. Domestic violence has severe effect on families and society in general. Domestic violence can be in the form physical abuse, psychological abuse and sexual abuse. Exposure to violence creates traumatic stress. Traumatic stress can be either short term or long-term. Terr ( cited in Brian Scott, 20005) describes short term trauma as â€Å"Type I† e. g a single event of rape or beating. He described repeated or prolonged trauma as â€Å"Type II†. Type II has more serious effects than type I. Individual exposed to this kind of trauma may develop Post Traumatic Stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD makes one to show routine withdrawal and oversensitivity. Many children from domestic violence homes show levels of (PTSD) (Leavitt, 1993). If untreated, the children exhibit violent behaviors, delinquency and other social and psychological problems. Since young child do have the ability to express themselves verbally, the emotional problems developed are behavioral such as lack of sleep, feeding problems, inability to concentrate, withdrawn and physical complaints. The pre-adolescents child may in addition to the above problems show loss of interest in peers, poor self concept violence,, defiant behavior and temper out bursts. Adolescents are likely to fail academically and start abusing drugs. Youth who exhibit violent behaviors can be traced to families experiencing domestic violence. An estimated 20% 30% of dating teenagers abuse or are being abused by their partners mentally, sexually, emotionally or physically. Between 30% and 50 % of adult relationships show the same cycle of violence (Leavitt, 1993) Nelson ( 2000), points out that community violence also has an impact on children who were victimized or who witnessed member of community or family members being victimized get affected. The effect of violence spread to even those children who are not directly affected by violence. Violence tampers with activities of the child which might make the child a better person. Impact of violence on the child depends on the level of development of the child. Early exposure to violence is more detrimental than later exposure( p. 266) In 1995 FBI report it reported that 27% of all violent crime involved domestic violence. All forms of violence affect the child’s mind. One study was done to show the connection between the brain and someone’s violence. Psychologists observed brain imaging data for a great number of people with violent behaviors. The research focused on specific brain regions. One was the orbital frontal cortex and the amyglada. The results showed that most of the cases, there was absence of normal activity in the orbital and anterior regions. While the shoed normal activity. The two regions will not counteract and this may explain some people are hyper aroused ( Lorraine).

Reverand Hale in Arthur Millers The Crucible Essay -- Essay on The Cr

The Salem witch trials of 1692 caused much confusion and chaos. A total of 19 were executed for supposed witchcraft. For such a travesty to occur and to end, there must be certain people that catalyze the event and others that speak out against it. In "The Crucible" by Arthur Miller, specific characters contribute to the rising hysteria of witchcraft and the disapproval of the convictions. Reverend Hale is a unique character that provides attributions to both sides. Although Reverend Hale is a catalyst to the beginning of the witch trials because he protects the authority of the court with a strict interpretation of its laws, he later realizes the falsehood of the court's accusations, and he makes a dramatic shift in his dependency on the law and in his beliefs of witchcraft. For the first half of the play, Hale strictly follows the law to maintain order, and as a result contributes to the beginning of the witch trials. For example, in his first scene of the play he enters Parris' house to help his niece, who is believed to have a spell cast upon her, and is carrying a heavy load of books that are "`...are weighted with authority'" (34). He prepares himself to ignore any conclusions based from emotional involvement or sensibility by keeping at hand lawful books to guide him. He trusts his books to keep control over the arising dilemma. In addition, when two church-going women, Martha Corey and Rebecca Nurse, are accused of witchcraft, the women's husbands begin to argue the case, but Hale still defends the court: "`I have seen too many frightful proofs in court -- the Devil is alive in Salem, and we dare not quail to follow wherever the accusing finger points!'"(68). Although it is ludicrous that two of the most la... ...the first few people persecuted, he realizes the integrity of life and that it cannot be wasted. He recognizes that he had mistakenly contributed to the death of those in the trials, and now wants to put an end to the hangings and save the lives of those undeserving of death. Hale demonstrates his change in ideals by becoming emotionally involved in the situation and allowing himself to try to protect the innocent victims. Hale changes from being in favor of the witch trials to opposing it because of the obviously innocent people that are sentenced to death. The Reverend is able to see his sins and the evils around him, and he reveal his strength and will in standing up for what he knows is right. He shows the reader that it is not one's reputation or fulfilling a job that is justifiable to God, but one's ability to protect His will of righteousness.

How to the Methods of Calculating Banks Marketing Budget Essay

How to Decide Banks Marketing Budget? Introduction Now a day under taking marketing activities is compulsory and a key to exist in the business environment especially in the financial sector where competition is strong. In Ethiopia there are 16 private commercial banks and three public owned banks. There is strong competition among these banks to take market share and earn profit especially for those banks that enter the market recently. In addition according to the National Bank of Ethiopia Directive, all commercial bank have to reach 500 million paid up capital in the coming four years. In order to achieve this amount of capital these banks must sell new share, persuade their existing share holders to fully pay the subscribed amount and retain the earning instead of paying the dividend. These are achieved by undertaking strong marketing campaign. All the banks have marketing budget and the budget differs based on the size and depth of their capital. However, determining the size of marketing budget is not an easy task. It is big question often asked by marketers and bank executives. In Ethiopia it is common to see Television program and football events sponsored by commercial banks, advertisement of banks products and services in any time on electronics and print media especially money transfer adverts during the holiday season, distributing giveaway materials and entertaining their customers. The marketing budget for a bank generally includes expenditures for five different activities: Advertising Debub Global Bank, MPPE Department Compiled by: Behaylu Wondafrash Promotional activities Sales promotion Marketing research Sales/customer service training and Public relations: How a bank allocates its total marketing budget among various marketing activities depends largely on bank size in terms of capital and branch distribution and advertising cost (production and air time cost). Most the Banks in Ethiopia spends about 80% of their total marketing budgets on advertising. The rest activities took 20 percent of the budget. Most banks are currently using sales promotion activity like commercial bank of Ethiopia which provide awards for who save 1000 birr and above in any branch of it and promotional activities like sponsoring Ethiopian Great Run and donating to children aid. Advertising took about 80 percent of the budget. This due to the fact that time to time increasing cost of advertising rate and production cost. The lion share of the budget is goes to the Ethiopian radio and Television Agency and then to the private FM radio stations especially Fana FM and Sheger FM. Most banks also use print media like reporter and fortune news paper. But how does a bank determine how much it should spend for marketing in general and advertising in particular? There are methods of calculation. Methods of calculation According to author of Marketing Financial Services, there are different ways to calculate a bank’s marketing budget. Banks use at least four methods to determine what they will spend on marketing in general and on advertising in particular: Debub Global Bank, MPPE Department Compiled by: Behaylu Wondafrash The percentage method, The competitive parity method, The incremental method and The objective-and-task method. 1. Percentage method: the percentage method states bank’s advertising budget is 1/10th of 1 percent of a bank’s total assets. This percentage method has several drawbacks or flaws. First, it is based on the bank’s past performance rather than on objectives for the future. Second, it views assets or deposits as the cause of advertising rather than recognizing that increases in these variables might be, to some extent, the effect of advertising. Third, it discourages aggressive advertising and reduces advertising expenditures in periods of economic slowdown. Research indicates that firms that maintain or increase their advertising during periods of recession do better after the recession. 2. Competitive parity method this method is also known as follows the leader. A bank determines what its competitors are spending on advertising and simply follows their lead. This method is based on the erroneous assumption that the market responds in the same way to the same volume of birr spent by different banks. It fails to take into account the effects of variations in creativity, different uses of media, the timing of campaigns, and a bank’s image and recognition level in its market area. Furthermore, a bank’s competitors probably use no more rational a system for determining their advertising expenditures than does the bank that is following their lead. 3. Incremental Method: under this method a bank simply increases its advertising budget by a certain percentage each year. The percentage may take Debub Global Bank, MPPE Department Compiled by: Behaylu Wondafrash into account the rate of inflation or the growth rate of the bank or it may be dictated by a planner or budgeter whose primary objective is to make the bottom line show a targeted return on assets. Whatever the percentage increase, this method does not take in to account the desired objectives of advertising and the most cost effective ways to attain them. 4. Objective-and-task method. Using this method, the bank bases its advertising budget on what it will cost to meet the marketing objectives it had defined. The bank then weighs this cost against the expected net benefit of the new business to ensure that the cost of advertising will not reduce the profit margin on the newly acquired deposits or loans beyond acceptable limits. For example, Let us take Debub Global bank (DGB) and assume that a bank’s goal is to increase its one-year deposit volume by 100 million birr over its expected normal growth during a promotion period. It calculates that the profit margin on those funds (deposits) will be 6 percent (or 6,000,000 birr). The bank must then decide how much it is willing to invest in advertising in order to generate an extra 6,000,000 birr of income. The selected amount will vary from bank to bank. This method also has its drawbacks. While it works for specific promotions that have immediately measurable results, such as increased deposit or loan volume, it cannot be used to determine the level of advertising necessary to build awareness of the bank and to develop and maintain an image for it. A bank that advertises only when it has a specific promotion to communicate may be out of the media for considerable periods of time. Most marketers agree that some maintenance level of advertising, either product or institutional, is a necessary investment, simply to keep the bank’s name in front of its publics.

Understanding Addiction How Addiction Develops The Brain...

Dopamine is defined as a neurochemical that supports fine motor activity, blood pressure, focus inspiration, intuition, and joy, among other functions (â€Å"Dopamine†). The brain interprets all items of pleasure in the same manner. Whether someone has sexual intercourse, eats a delicious meal, or smokes marijuana, the brain releases dopamine in the same fashion. Drugs ranging from nicotine to heroin all produce the same signals in the nucleus accumbens, which is a group of nerve cells that sits below the cerebral cortex (â€Å"Understanding Addiction: How Addiction Hijacks the Brain†). In â€Å"Violence in Movies, Music, and Media,† by Jeanne Nagle, dopamine is compared to a shot of a heavy-duty amphetamine (38). The entertainment an individual finds in shooting another person on a TV screen is the same as one who watches a violent movie that interests them as well. As dopamine is released, the brain naturally wants more as it is very addictive by nature ( "Understanding Addiction: How Addiction Hijacks the Brain†). Rosner for example, the man addicted to videogames, could sit down and be vegetative for 18 hours at a time playing his favorite game. The dopamine released while playing was enough to almost shut down his prefrontal regions in his brain that affect judgement and concern – leading him to play more and more violent games (Linden). People who begin as mildly curious or interested in the world of violence, zombies, and vampires can quickly become an addicted expert on the subjectShow MoreRelatedAddiction as a Disease: Addiction is a term that has traditionally been used to refer to1400 Words   |  6 PagesAddiction as a Disease: Addiction is a term that has traditionally been used to refer to psychiatric syndrome that is caused by illicit drug use. 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